Domestic tourism involves those residents traveling within their own country, whereas international tourism involves those who travel to a country other than that in which they normally live. International tourism is subdivided into inbound tourism, in which non-residents are traveling in a given country, and outbound tourism, in which residents of a given country are traveling abroad to other countries.
Based on tourism resources attractions , the forms of tourism include cultural tourism, religious tourism, ethnic tourism, ecotourism also known as nature tourism , medical tourism also known as medical travel or health tourism , adventure tourism, event tourism e.
The demand for tourism is influenced by a variety of factors. According to Eagles et al. Tourism has a significant impact in many economies, and it is growing fast Glasson et al.
Indeed, the growth of international tourism is attributed to higher standards of living in the Western world, improved modes of travel, and the end of liberation wars and the establishment of democratic governments in the developing countries — restoring peace and political stability Harrison, ; McIntosh et al.
Tourism has been growing rapidly since World War II and will continue its dynamic growth into the future Eagles et al. Tourism is vital for many countries, due to the income generated by the consumption of goods and services by tourists, the taxes levied on tourism businesses and the jobs created in tourism and tourism-related businesses.
For poor countries, localities, cities and towns, tourism is seen as the fast track to development. Tourism can be a catalyst for local and national development, bringing employment, exchange earnings, balance of payments advantages and important infrastructure developments benefiting locals and visitors alike Glasson et al.
Most countries now identify tourism as a discrete productive sector of their economies. Tourism should be seen as a means of development in a broader sense McIntosh et al. These analysts describe the broader sense of tourism to mean the potential of the industry to have direct socio-economic impacts on destination areas. Development should not only refer to economic matters but should encompass economic, social, environmental and ethical considerations such that its measurement may incorporate indicators of poverty, unemployment, inequality and self-reliance Binns, Indeed, there is a cumulative relationship between tourism development, the environment and socio-economic development Carter, This means that if tourism is to contribute to sustainable development, then it must be economically viable, culturally appropriate and ecologically sensitive Wall, This suggests that the development of tourism in destinations should be based on the concept of sustainable development.
Sustainable development is defined as the conservation and management of natural resource bases, and the orientation of technological and institutional change, in such a manner as to ensure the attainment and continued satisfaction of human needs for the present and future generations WCED, The concept of sustainability is anchored on three main principles — social equity, economic efficiency and ecological sustainability Serageldin, ; Angelson et al.
Related to the issue of sustainability in tourism development is the new concept of ecotourism. In the simple sense, ecotourism is the practice of visiting an area to see unspoiled habitats and the plants and animals that live in them.
But it has many other dimensions. Ecotourism is a type of tourism that promotes conservation, has low visitor impacts, provides for beneficially active socio-economic involvement of local communities and promotes visitor awareness in environmental conservation Ceballos-Lascurain, It focuses on the need to promote a symbiotic, or at worst, co-existent relationship between tourism and environmental conservation Carter, Ecotourism is environmentally sound, advocates for sustainable use of natural resources and takes into account the needs, aspirations and participation of the local communities.
As such, ecotourism is sustainable. This implies that the two concepts of ecotourism and sustainable development are interrelated and both advocate for secure livelihoods of the poor, equitable distribution of tourism benefits and equal participation of stakeholders in decision-making and promote environmental conservation. While cultural tourism still predominates, presently there is the growing realm of ecotourism.
Many tropical countries have capitalized on ecotourism by establishing protected areas and support services to tourists. In fact, tourism is becoming more and more important in the economies of both developed and developing countries. The world is now striving for sustainable tourism in order to improve the local and global quality of life and provide a foundation for peace and prosperity.
International tourism, through effective policies and plans, has the potential to be one of the most important stimulants for global improvement in the economic, social, cultural, intellectual, political and environmental dimensions of future lifestyles Edgell and Swanson, Tourism industry in East Africa including Ethiopia remained in its infancy, mainly because the economy has been disrupted by drought and political strife Boniface and Cooper, In Ethiopia, this potential economic sector has not been given due attention until very recently.
In line with the growth of international tourism, the tourism industry in Ethiopia is now growing fast Mulugeta Lemenih, ; MoCT, a, b. Cognizant of the importance of tourism for poverty alleviation and sustainable development, Ethiopia is now promoting the development of the tourism sector. But much is left to do in order to promote the sector, particularly ecotourism Mulugeta Lemenih, MoCT is now responsible for formulating national policies and programmes for the development and promotion of domestic and international tourism.
Two new entities, the Tourism Transformation Council TTC and the Ethiopian Tourism Organization ETO , have been established with the objective of transforming the industry and based on the necessity to coordinate the activities of various stakeholders in the industry. Global and Regional Tourism Trends World international tourist arrivals increased from million in to 1, million in Fig. In , however, international tourist arrivals recorded a 35 million 3. Africa was the only region to show positive figures in Table 1.
In the period , international tourist arrivals grew by 3. UNWTO forecasted international tourist arrivals to reach 1. World international tourist arrivals Table 2. International tourist arrivals in Africa increased from In the period , international tourist arrivals in Africa grew by 6. The growth of tourism varies among African countries. In , international tourist arrivals reached 1,, in Kenya and , in Ethiopia.
In , international tourist arrivals showed a growth rate of In , In , receipts showed a growth rate of International tourist arrivals and receipts Source: MoCT a 4. Hundreds of thousands of international and domestic visitors travel to these sites each year. Indeed, Ethiopia is one of the most important tourist destinations in the world. The major tourist attractions of Ethiopia are given below.
Factors Affecting Tourism Development Despite the existence of diverse tourism resources natural, historical and cultural attractions , the tourism industry in Ethiopia is still poorly developed. Tourism, if it is made sustainable, has the potential to enhance the conservation of natural, historical and cultural resources, improve the livelihoods of local communities and enhance national development.
Natural and Cultural Heritage Conservation Tourism is generally with minimum impacts on the environment. Other economic sectors such as agriculture, mining, industry and transport are far more environmentally damaging. Tourism can also stimulate funding for conservation.
Thus, tourism plays an important role in natural and cultural heritage conservation. Local and National Economy Tourism significantly contributes to the local and national economy. Tourism generates income and employment opportunities to local communities. In protected areas, local people are employed as managers, guards, scouts, drivers, tourist guides, cooks and housekeepers tentkeepers. They also generate income by hiring riding and packing animals horses, mules, camels and selling traditional handicrafts.
Moreover, community-based ecotourism has been recently started in some areas such as Guassa, Lake Ziway and Lepis forest Arsi , bringing income to the local communities, while preserving the local environment and culture. Ecotourism activities help to diversify the livelihoods of local communities.
Tourism has also significant contribution to national employment and GDP. A large number of people are employed directly in tourism businesses historic sites, religious sites, museums, protected areas, botanic gardens, zoos, hotels, cafeterias, restaurants, guesthouses, resorts, lodges, travel agents, tour operators, vehicle rentals, souvenir shops, banking, catering and tourism training centres, tourism consultancy firms, internet centres, entertainment venues, etc.
In , tourism generated over , jobs World Bank, Government revenues collected from the tourism sector are from tourism businesses and are in the form of license fees, import duties, and taxes from income, property and sales; and from visitors and are in the from of user fees charged for airplanes, vehicle rentals, entry, camping and boating.
Ecotourism in protected areas generates considerable revenue, as is the case in the Semien and Bale Mountains National Parks and Adaba- Dodola forest. In the year , the income from provision of services to 1, visitors of the Adaba-Dodola forest amounted to about ETB , Tsegaye Tadesse, Thus, Ethiopia needs to promote the ecotourism industry as there is an abundance of nature-based tourism products in the country. Ethiopia has various protected areas for ecotourism development, which has multiple purposes.
Protected areas have environmental conservation , scientific, educational, aesthetic, social and economic values. Protected areas need tourism, and tourism needs protected areas Eagles et al. They pointed out that the potential benefits of tourism in protected areas are to protect the natural and cultural heritage, enhance economic opportunities, and advance the quality of life of all concerned.
Tourism is the third main source of foreign exchange earnings in Ethiopia MoCT, b. The contribution of the tourism sector to foreign exchange export and GDP in the period is given in Table 3. In , tourism generated USD 1,,,, accounting for 2. However, it should be noted that the contribution of the tourism sector to the national economy GDP is still low compared to that of many African countries.
Table 3. Contribution of tourism sector to foreign exchange export and GDP In the last two decades, the growing tourism industry has stimulated the development of infrastructure and support services such as roads, water and electric power supplies, hotels, cafeterias, restaurants, guesthouses, resorts, lodges, campsites, airports and airstrips in destination areas.
Moreover, tourism businesses are increasing, especially in Addis Ababa, Axum, Gondar, Lalibela, Bahir Dar, Hawassa and Arba Minch, to offer goods and services to visitors and local people. The capital Addis Ababa is the seat of the African Union Headquarters and many international organizations, with facilities for shopping, communication and entertainment, and transportation by air and road to most parts of the country.
On the other hand, it should be noted that available infrastructure and support services are still inadequate compared to the ever-increasing tourism demand tourists. Tourism is a viable option for Ethiopia for natural and cultural heritage conservation and socio- economic development. It is thus worthwhile to promote the tourism industry in Ethiopia.
Negative Impacts of Tourism While tourism has mostly positive impacts, there are also negative impacts of tourism. Most tourism development places additional pressure on the environmental resources upon which it is based, compromising the future prospects of the local communities and, indeed, the expectations of tourists themselves Carter, Some of the impacts of change may be controlled, regulated or directed.
If properly managed, tourism has the potential of being a renewable industry, where resource integrity is maintained or even enhanced. If mismanaged, or allowed to expand within short-term goals and objectives, it has the capability of destroying the very resources upon which it is built. The concept of sustainable development is thus important to tourism development since the destruction of tourism resources for the short-term gain will deny the benefits to be gained from mobilization of those resources in the future Carter, The costs or negative impacts of tourism are of three kinds — financial and economic, socio-cultural and environmental Eagles et al.
In Kenya, Western visitors have caused offence to a traditional Muslim society by their dress and behaviour and social mores are changing to the extent that sex tourism is a problem Boniface and Cooper, Tourism development should be in harmony with the socio-cultural, ecological and heritage goals, values and aspirations of the host community Ritchie, The tourism industry in Ethiopia is now beginning to have negative economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts but a small-scale.
Indeed, there are little or no studies on this matter in Ethiopia. What follows is a narration from some sources and observations.
Benefits e. This means tourism does not have substantial and meaningful economic benefits to the local communities meager economic benefits because of revenue leakage from the area ; hence, its sustainability in terms of socio-economic benefits becomes questionable.
In the real sense, local communities should be both the benefactor and beneficiary of the tourism development in their area. In Ethiopia, protected areas have failed to meet their conservation objectives mainly because of the exclusion of local people from participation and lack of sharing of benefits derived from the protected areas Haileab Zegeye, Local communities should gain economic, social, cultural and other benefits from the tourism in their area.
The study on local community support for tourism development in the Semien Mountains National Park SMNP showed that the local communities support the tourism development when they participate in the tourism development decision-making and planning, are aware about the tourism development and gain socio-economic benefits from the tourism development, while the tourism development would help to preserve the natural environment Leul Yohannes and Endalkachew Teshome, In many areas, with tourism development, prices tend to rise, making everyday life more expensive for visitors, and local residents as well.
Furthermore, there are negative socio-cultural impacts such as cigarette smoking, prostitution, crime and the Western influence on local dress, especially on young people. Though most visits to Ethiopia are trouble- free, international visitors are now facing low-level but rampant street crimes such as mugging, purse snatching and pick pocketing by thieves that often operate in teams, and other safety challenges such as harassment, theft and holdups MoCT, b.
Socio-cultural impacts of tourism in destination areas are associated with changes in traditional ideas and values, norms and identities of the local people Glasson et al. These changes are beginning to affect Ethiopia. This calls the need to create awareness in the youth on the importance of maintaining our cultural identity and social ethics.
Stealing and vandalism of historic and cultural artifacts by visitors is also a problem. Tourism development is also producing negative environmental impacts in tourist sites, especially protected areas.
Development of infrastructure such as roads, lodges and campsites in protected areas reduces the scenic beauty of the areas, affects drainage, causes removal of vegetation, and affects wildlife breeding sites and travel routes. Trampling by visitors and horses has caused soil erosion, soil compaction, and damage on vegetation and wildlife including soil fauna. Rare and endemic flora and fauna are sensitive to trampling, and thus the issue should not be overlooked. Campfire and cigarette smoking can cause incidence of forest fires.
There is chasing of wildlife by visitors, especially domestic. Habituation to humans has caused changed wildlife behaviour, such as approaching people for food, as is the case in Gelada Baboon. Powered boats are damaging aquatic animals and lake banks, for instance, in Lake Tana and Lake Ziway. In Addis Ababa and major towns, pollution due to discharge of domestic and industrial wastes has become a problem. In Addis, air pollution due to CO2 emissions from factories and outdated vehicles is also becoming a concern, especially for international visitors.
In protected areas, littering, especially plastic bags, pieces of paper, cans, bottles and human waste, along roads and on campsites, is causing environmental pollution. Noise pollution caused by vehicles and visitors, though temporary, is causing a disturbance to wildlife such as Walia Ibex and Mountain Nyala. Endemic species are, by virtue of their limited ranges, highly vulnerable to extinction.
Thus, due attention should be given to areas with rich biodiversity and endemism, such as the Semien and Bale Mountains and Lake Tana.
Negative environmental impacts of tourism in protected areas worldwide are well highlighted by Eagles et al. They pointed out that tourism operations within protected areas need to be carefully planned, managed and monitored in order to ensure their long-term sustainability; otherwise, negative impacts will be generated and tourism will instead contribute to the further deterioration of these areas. Tourism in protected areas should develop in a sustainable fashion, while respecting local communities and conditions.
Hence, tourism in Ethiopia needs to be properly planned and managed such that negative impacts are minimal. Measures should be taken to mitigate the negative impacts of tourism. Understanding both positive and negative impacts of tourism will lead to practical sustainable tourism development. It is also important to learn from the tourism development experiences of other African countries for example, Kenya, Botswana, South Africa and elsewhere in the world for example, Costa Rica, Maldives.
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Asaf Leshem. A short summary of this paper. And yet, to most people outside of Africa, it is mainly known for the images of drought, famine and border wars with Eritrea ibid.
With a population of over 73 million people, most of which live on less than one pound a day the country is in critical need for revenues from every possible source. Weaver points out that in recent years a lot of Least Developed Countries LDCs have placed high priority on tourism as means to achieve desired economic outcomes.
However, whereas neighbouring Kenya had more than 1,, arrivals in , Ethiopia had just , in WTO, The employers of these organisations travel frequently on missions and are visited by friends and family VFR. Thus, rich in natural, cultural and historical resources, Ethiopia has not seen much of the regional share of tourism receipts. In the past 5 years a few successful tour operators and a handful of Ecolodges have emerged.
Current major forms of tourism in Ethiopia involve the history tour namely Axum, Gondar and Lalibela; cultural tourism, the most famous example of which is tribe tourism in South Omo Valley and Nature tourism, mainly hiking in the Simian and Bale mountains. There are various levels of economic benefits to host communities and different levels of social, cultural, and environmental conservation.
The privately owned Ecolodges are all members of the Ecotourism Association of Ethiopia and are either tourism professionals or invest in ecotourism, which is a small part of their bigger business operations. These projects are in different stages of development from planning to exit stage and different models are examined. Set against this background, the research aimed on defining the Ethiopian ecotourism paradigm and constructing a model of stakeholder collaboration that would be suitable for the current Ethiopian socioeconomic conditions.
Also, to present and interpret the views of stakeholders interviewed and make recommendations which could be implemented in existing or future projects.
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